Human sacrifice and ritualistic torture were significant aspects of many pre-Columbian civilizations in ancient Mexico, particularly among the Aztecs and Maya. These practices were deeply tied to religious beliefs and the notion of sustaining the gods and ensuring cosmic balance. By tracing the history of several key archaeological sites—Monte Albán, Sumidero Canyon, Palenque, Xunantunich, Chichén Itzá, and Cancún—I gained insight into how different cultures viewed life, death, and the afterlife, and how these beliefs ‘justified’ human offerings.
I visited Mexico in 2001 during my summer break. I’d been keen to do so; not only to hear the music, eat the food, but also due to a fascination I had for the Aztec and Maya cultures. My Mexican friends warned me to be extra conscious of danger and to do my best to avoid unsafe places. Armed with this consciousness I flew to Mexico City.
Monte Albán: The Sacred City of the Zapotecs
The plane trip was memorable. I sat next to a Mexican boy and we chatted a lot which made the long trip pass in a heartbeat. When we arrived his entire family was waiting for him and he introduced me to his family, who all welcomed me to Mexico. My first stop was Oaxaca and this meant taking the bus from Mexico City to Oaxaca. Luckily the cousin of a friend of a friend (!) waited for me to take me to the bus station by metro, and he even waited until I got on to the bus and drove away. A warm and lovely welcome to Mexico.
Oaxaca is sometimes referred to as the pearl of Mexico. I think that nickname is perfect. I will never forget the colours of dresses, the balloons, and the bees buzzing around the sugarloafs in the market. Not to far from Oaxaca is Monte Albán, my first field trip to Mesoamerican site. I took the bus and noticed how small kids were roaming freely in the bus; their mothers had no worries as all adults in the bus seemed to take care of them. This is very different from a bus drive in The Netherlands. The kids seemed to enjoy this freedom of not being tied to a seat for hours. We were even joined by a small mariachi band with the average age of 8.
Monte Albán was a major ceremonial center of the Zapotec civilization that flourished from 500 BCE to 900 CE. Though the Zapotecs were not as famous for human sacrifice as the Aztecs, evidence shows that human offerings and ritualistic violence were present at Monte Albán. The Zapotecs believed in a pantheon of gods who required human blood and life force to maintain harmony in the universe.
Archaeological findings, including carvings known as Danzantes (dancers), depict mutilated figures, many of which represent prisoners of war. These carvings are thought to symbolize ritualistic torture and sacrifice, possibly of captured warriors or high-status individuals. Their twisted and contorted forms suggest the violence that often accompanied these rites. Some scholars propose that these images reflect the Zapotec belief in bloodletting and sacrifice as a way to honor their gods and ensure fertility and prosperity for the community.
Sumidero Canyon: A Natural Gateway to the Underworld
Next stop was Sumidero Canyon, located in Chiapas. This took a long bus ride over hilly terrain and through massive cactus fields. Sumidero Canyon is not only a natural wonder but also a site that holds dark historical significance. During the Spanish conquest, it is said that some indigenous people threw themselves into the canyon rather than submit to the invaders, but the canyon’s association with ritual death predates this event. The Maya, who once inhabited the region, regarded the deep, narrow canyons and caves as entrances to the underworld, known as Xibalba.
In Mesoamerican cosmology, water sources like cenotes, rivers, and canyons were often linked to the underworld. Human sacrifices—sometimes through drowning—were performed in such places to appease the gods of rain, fertility, and death. Sumidero Canyon, with its sheer cliffs and dramatic landscape, would have been seen as a portal between the living world and the realm of the dead, making it a fitting location for sacrificial rites.
I spent a few days in Tuxtla Gutiérrez before moving on. One day while sitting on a bench a little girl tried to sell me a dead bee incapsulated in resin (‘Jurassic Park’ style). I declined but later she passed by crying as some boys were scaring her away. I bought the bee to comfort her. I still have it today.
Palenque: The Maya City of Kings and the Ritual of Bloodletting
Palenque, another significant Maya city located in modern-day Chiapas, was a center of power and spirituality during the Classic Maya period (250-900 CE). The Maya believed that kings and rulers acted as intermediaries between the gods and their people, and bloodletting rituals—sometimes self-inflicted by rulers—were common to ensure divine favor. I had long wanted to see Palenque, after seeing a documentary about it on Dutch television. It certainly became the highlight of my trip.
In Palenque, rulers like Pakal the Great oversaw ceremonies that often involved human sacrifice, especially during times of drought or warfare. While the Maya did not sacrifice on the same scale as the Aztecs, they did believe that offering human life, particularly of war captives, could nourish the gods and maintain cosmic order. Hieroglyphic inscriptions at Palenque describe the capture and sacrifice of enemies, highlighting the importance of these rituals in securing political power and religious sanctity.
Palenque is in the middle of the jungle and surrounded by beautiful waterfalls. I took the opportunity to visit some of them. While they are beautiful, they can be dangerous as I was made aware of in the most horrible way by witnessing a family looking desperately for their missing child between the waterfalls.
Xunantunich: Blood Sacrifice in the Shadows of the Stone Maidens
I moved further East and hit the Pacific coast at Belize, but not before visiting Xunantunich. This is a smaller but significant Maya site known for its imposing temples and intricate carvings. The name Xunantunich means “Stone Maiden,” a reference to local legends of a ghostly woman who haunts the site. Like other Maya cities, Xunantunich was a place of ritual sacrifice, and bloodletting played a central role in the spiritual life of the community.
Archaeological excavations at Xunantunich have revealed evidence of human remains in ceremonial contexts, indicating that sacrifices were made to appease the gods, particularly during the construction of temples or in response to celestial events like eclipses. The Maya believed that the cosmos required balance, and blood offerings—whether through voluntary bloodletting or human sacrifice—were essential to maintaining this equilibrium.
Chichén Itzá: The Heart of Maya Sacrifice
It was now time to move North; direction Mérida, located in the Yucatán Peninsula. This a different world. Prices were more than double that of Oaxaca and the streets were roamed by mostly American tourists. Locals were continuously trying to sell you something; we were now in a tourist place. It does contain perhaps the most famous of all Mesoamerican sites, Chichén Itzá. This was a powerful city and religious center during the Postclassic Maya period (900-1200 CE). Chichén Itzá’s iconic Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) was used for ritual sacrifices, and it is here that some of the most infamous stories of Maya human offerings take place.
The cenote, a natural sinkhole filled with water, was considered a portal to the underworld. The Maya believed that offerings, including human sacrifices, were necessary to appease the rain god, Chaac, and ensure the agricultural fertility of the land. Archaeologists have discovered the remains of men, women, and children at the bottom of the cenote, along with valuable offerings such as jade, pottery, and gold. These sacrificial victims were often thrown into the water alive, sometimes after being wounded or bloodied, to increase the potency of the offering.
Chichén Itzá is also home to the Temple of Kukulkan, a massive pyramid dedicated to the feathered serpent god, Kukulkan. The city was known for its large-scale human sacrifices, especially during the tlachtli ball games, where losing players—often prisoners of war—would be offered as sacrifices to the gods.
Cancún: A Modern Tourist Hub with an Ancient Legacy
Today, Cancún, my final stop, is synonymous with beaches and luxury resorts but its surrounding areas hold a deep connection to the ancient Maya world. The nearby cenotes and ruins are a reminder of the region’s dark past of sacrifice and ritual. Just outside of Cancún, the ruins of El Rey and other smaller Maya sites show evidence of ritualistic practices, though on a much smaller scale than cities like Chichén Itzá.
Cancún itself sits on land that was once part of the Maya civilization, and cenotes in the region still evoke the spiritual significance they once held as places of transition between life and death. Many of these natural formations were sites of sacrifice, where the Maya sought to appease their gods through offerings of blood and life.
It was surprising how in such a touristic place the archeological site was so calm and quiet (possibly due to the time I visited it in the heat of the day..). I spent the final days in Playa del Carmen, not in a luxury resort but due to my low budget in a hotel room that could better be described as a ‘closet’, but the walking distance to one of the most beautiful beaches I had ever seen made up for that.
Conclusion: A Legacy Carved in Blood
The ancient cultures of Mexico, including the Aztecs and Maya, saw human sacrifice not as a cruel or violent act but as a necessary ritual to maintain the balance of the cosmos. From Monte Albán to Chichén Itzá, each site holds its unique place in the story of ritual offerings, bloodletting, and human sacrifice. These acts, while horrifying to modern sensibilities, and certainly shocking to me, were deeply embedded in the religious and political life of these civilizations, shaping their worldview and ensuring their survival, at least for a time. As I explored these ancient sites, I came face to face with the complex and often brutal relationship between humanity and the divine in Mesoamerican history. How strong was the contrast with modern-day caring and kind people whom I met on this trip.
My boss at ESA, who was married to a Mexican woman, asked me before the trip to ‘not give in to the temptation to stay in Mexico and not return home’. I understood now what he meant. I came looking for ancient cultures while being wary of modern-day dangers in the country, but instead found dangerous ancient cultures with human sacrifices, and modern-day kindness, caring for children, smiles everywhere, beautiful landscapes and amazing food.
Ciao!
Robin
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